Islam - the lawful (Halaal) and the prohibited (Haram)

A look at the Lawful (Halaal) and the Prohibited (Haraam)in Islam and the reasons behind the rulings.

Israel’s Death Culture, a Dragging Anchor

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Decay of Spiritual Values in India

YOU SHOULD KNOW THIS MAN !

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

“.... A mass of detail in the early sources show that he was an honest and upright man who had gained the respect and loyalty of others who were like-wise honest and upright men." (Vol. 12).

GEORGE BERNARD SHAW
In 'The Genuine Islam,' Vol. 1, No. 8, 1936

• I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that would bring it the much needed peace and happiness.

• I have prophesied about the faith of Muhammad that it would be acceptable to the Europe of tomorrow as it is beginning to be acceptable to the Europe of today.”

• "If any religion had the chance of ruling over England, nay Europe within the next hundred years, it could be Islam."

• I have always held the religion of Muhammad in high estimation because of its wonderful vitality. It is the only religion, which appears to me to possess that assimilating capacity to the changing phase of existence, which can make itself appeal to every age.

• I have studied him - the wonderful man and in my opinion far  from being an anti-Christ, he must be called the Savior of Humanity.“

MICHAEL H. HART
THE 100
A Ranking of The Most Influential
Persons in History
New York, 1978

He ranked Mohammed first in the list,  who contributed towards the benefit and uplift of mankind.

"My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels."

PROFESSOR  RAMAKRISHNA RAO
Famous Indian Thinker and Professor
in his paper Presented  in South
Indian University

"The personality of Muhammad, it is most difficult to get into the whole truth of it. Only a glimpse of it I can catch. What a dramatic succession of picturesque scenes! There is Muhammad, the Prophet. There is Muhammad, the Warrior; Muhammad, the Businessman; Muhammad, the Statesman; Muhammad, the Orator; Muhammad, the Reformer; Muhammad, the Refuge of Orphans; Muhammad, the Protector of Slaves; Muhammad, the Emancipator of Women; Muhammad, the Judge; Muhammad, the Saint. All in all these magnificent roles, in all these departments of human activities, he is alike a hero."

SAROJINI NAIDU
Famous Indian Poetess in
IDEALS OF ISLAM
Madras, 1918

• "It was the first religion that preached and practiced democracy; for, in the mosque, when the call for prayer is sounded and worshippers are gathered together, the democracy of Islam is embodied five times a day when the peasant and king kneel side by side and proclaim: 'God Alone is Great'...

• I have been struck over and over again by this indivisible unity of Islam that makes man instinctively a brother"

THOMAS CARLYLE
In ‘HEROES AND HEROWORSHIP’

• How one man single-handedly, could weld warring tribes and wandering Bedouins into a most powerful and civilized nation in less than two decades.

• The lies (Western slander) which well-meaning zeal has heaped round this man (Muhammad) are disgraceful to us only.

• A silent great soul, one of that who cannot but be earnest. He was to kindle the world, the world’s Maker had ordered so.

ALPHONSE DE LA-MARTINE
A Renowned Historian in
HISTOIRE DE LA TURQUIE,
Paris, 1854, Vol. II, pp 276-277

• If greatness of purpose, smallness of means and astounding results are the three criteria of human genius, who could dare to compare any great man in modern history  with Muhammad?

• His forbearance in victory, his ambition, which was entirely devoted to one idea and in no manner striving for an empire;

• His endless prayers, his mystic conversations* with God, his death and his triumph after death;

• All these attest not to an imposture but to a firm conviction which gave him the power to restore a true belief.

• Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational true belief, of a system of religion without images.

• The founder of twenty terrestrial empires and of one spiritual empire, that is MUHAMMAD.

• As regards all the standards by which Human Greatness may be measured, we may well ask, IS THERE ANY MAN GREATER THAN HE?“

MAHATMA GANDHI
In YOUNG INDIA

• "I wanted to know the best of one who holds today's undisputed sway over the hearts of millions of mankind…

• I became more than convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life

• When I closed the 2nd volume (of the Prophet's biography), I was sorry there was not more for me to read of the great life"

DIWAN CHAND SHARMA
Famous Historian in his book
THE PROPHETS OF THE EAST
Calcutta, 1935, pp. 12

• Muhammad was the soul of kindness, and his influence was felt and never forgotten by those around him.

DR. ANNIE BESANT
Great Indian Visionary and Author
In 'The Life and Teachings of Mohammad
Madras, 1932

• But do you mean to tell me that the man who in the full flush of youthful vigour, a young man of four and twenty (24), married a woman much his senior, and remained faithful to her for six and twenty years (26), at fifty years of age when the passions are dying married for lust and sexual passion? Not thus are men's lives to be judged. And you look at the women whom he married, you will find that by every one of them an alliance was made for his people, or something was gained for his followers, or the woman was in sore need of protection."

EDWARD GIBBON & SIMON OCKLEY
In History of The Saracen Empires
London, 1870, p. 54

• I BELIEVE IN ONE GOD, AND MAHOMET, AN APOSTLE OF GOD’ is the simple and invariable profession of Islam. The intellectual image of the Deity has never been degraded by any visible idol; the honor of the Prophet has never transgressed the measure of human virtues; and his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within the bounds of reason and religion”

PROFESSOR HURGRONJE
Professor of Repute in
His Lectures

• "The league of nations founded by the prophet of Islam put the principle of international unity and human brotherhood on such universal foundations as to show candle to other nations.“

• He continues: "The fact is that no nation of the world can show a parallel to what Islam has done towards the realization of the idea of the League of Nations."

• Today after a lapse of fourteen centuries, the life and teachings of MUHAMMAD (pbuh) have survived without the slightest loss, alteration or interpolation. They offer the same undying hope for treating mankind's many ills, which they did when he was alive.

• This is not a claim of Muhammad's (pbuh) followers but also the inescapable conclusion forced upon by a critical and unbiased history.

HE DID IT…

• He was by far the most remarkable man that ever set foot on this earth.

• He preached a religion, founded a state, built a nation, laid down a moral code and initiated numerous social and political reforms.

• He established a powerful and dynamic society to practice and represent his teachings and completely revolutionized the worlds of human thought and behavior for all times to come.

YES! HE IS
PROPHET MUHAMMAD
May Peace of God Be Upon Him

He presented a Book widely read and memorized since beginning while he was Ummi in the term of The Book means one who never learned how to read and write. He claimed that The Book is revealed to him from Heavens by God Almighty. The Book is very much present in all times of history in all the parts of the globe as well as millions memorize it by heart from beginning to the last and can recite any time.
 
Let us see how this Book presents him. Here is English translation of the verses :

Chapter 21 Verse 107 of THE HOLY QUR’AN :

“And O Prophet, WE have sent you as OUR Mercy for the Universe.”

Chapter 68 verse 4 :

“And indeed, O Prophet, you are at inspirational highest morals (to be followed).”

Chapter 9 Verse 128 :

“O Mankind, surely has come to you a Messenger from among yourselves. It grieves him that you might suffer in the life to come. Ardently anxious is he for you, full of compassion and mercy towards the believers.”

HIS MISSION
During this short period of 23 years of his Prophet-hood, he changed the Arabian peninsula completely.
 
•  From paganism and idolatry to SUBMISSION to the One True God.
•  From tribal quarrels and wars to national solidarity and cohesion.
•  From drunkenness and debauchery to sobriety and piety.
•  From lawlessness and anarchy to disciplined living.
•  From utter bankruptcy to the highest standards of moral excellence.

Human history has never known such a complete transformation of a society or a place before or since – and IMAGINE all these unbelievable wonders in JUST OVER TWO DECADES.

Now Please Relax for a Moment and Think

Whether we have studied the Heavenly Book presented by the Prophet (pbuh) with the claim that it is not authored by him? Have we ever tried to understand its messages and followed it in a true spirit or have we followed the traditions we got from our family or from any other source? Whether we ourselves have discovered the personality, morals and message the Prophet (pbuh) preached and practiced? Do we follow him in true spirit or do some rituals we got from our family or someone told us to do?

Think again, whether God Almighty will judge us according to the books authored by any human being or according to HIS Own Heavenly Book?

It is the only Book on this earth in its Godly wordings which numerous times remind the reader to cross check the religion he is getting from his fore-fathers. The Book prepares a smart, intelligent and most scientific person who does not accept anything without cross checking it on his intellect and common sense. The Book changed the course of history and made a whole illiterate, tribal and uncivilized population of the Peninsula into most literate, modern, scientific and developing lot within the span of only 23 years and the next 15 years, human history evidently witnessed a vast area of Africa and Asia into a spiritual empire immerged as a super power.

Let us make an online connection individually with the Original and correct ourselves accordingly for our own benefit, so we can start a process to correct ourselves for our own peaceful survival.

CA Rizwan Mirza
Prakash Complex, Behind Police Station,
Ravi Nagar Square, NAGPUR – 440 033   (India)
09225232100 Tel: 0712-2560920
rtmirza@in.com, rtmirza@rediffmail.com

Food From Our First Eid Open House

Jainism

The Jain religion is contemporaneous with Buddhism and similarities to both Buddhism and Hinduism. Jains, however, count Mahavira as the last of 24 founders, or Tirthankaras, the first being Rishabha. In 1990 the number of Jains worldwide was estimated at 3,650,000, almost all of them live in India. Jainism has been present in India since Mahavira's time without interruption, and its influence has been significant.

Jains are divided into two sects the Digambara and Svetambara. The main difference between them is that the Svetambaras wear white clothes, the Digambaras (sky clad) traditionally go naked. Fundamentally, however, the views of both sects on ethics and philosophy are identical. Jains believe that the universe is infinite and was not created by a deity. Jains believe in non-injury to all forms of life, they believe that every kind of thing has a soul; therefore they strictly follow nonviolence (ahimsa) in all activity. They also believe in incarnation and eventual spiritual salvation, or moksha, through following the path of the Tirthankars. Jains are strict vegetarians. Jain monks frequently wear cloths over their mouths to avoid unwillingly killing anything by breathing it in, and Jain floors are kept meticulously clean to avert the danger of stepping on a living being.

Ordinary householders cannot help harming the latter, but they strive to limit themselves in this regard by refraining from eating meat, certain fruits, or honey or from drinking wine. In addition Jain householders are expected to practice other virtues, similar to those in Hinduism. The vows taken by the Jain monks are very strict. They eventually involve elements of asceticism: fasting, peripatetic begging, learning to endure bodily discomfort, and various internal austerities constituting a Jain variety of yoga. Jainism is unique in allowing the very spiritually advanced to hasten their own death by certain practices (principally fasting) and under specified circumstances.

Jain philosophy is based on a fundamental distinction between living and nonliving matter. Living souls are divided into bound and liberated; the living souls are found in both mobile and immobile body. Nonliving matter is composed of karman or very fine particles that enter a soul and produce changes in it, thus causing its bondage. This influx of karman is induced by activity and has to be burned off by experience. Karmans are of infinitely numerous varieties and account for all distinctions noted in the world. By non attachment, however, an individual can prevent influx of further karmans and thus escape from the bonds of action. A soul, which is thought of as having the same size as its body, at liberation has lost the matter that weights it down and thus ascends to the top of the universe, where it remains forever.

The Jains constructed extraordinary temples and complexes. The main feature is the large number of similar building clusters together in one place. The temples also features many columns, no two of which are ever identical. A notable examples of the Jain temples are Palitana in eastern Gujarat- a mountain-top fortress filled with hundreds of beautiful temples, Mount Abu in Rajasthan, in south Sravanabelagola in Karnataka, though only a village, is also a holy site- it is home to the 17m high sculpture of Gomateshvara, the world's tallest monolithic statue.

Zoroastrianism / Parsis

This is one of the oldest religions on earth and was founded in Persia by prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) in the 6th or 7th century BC. The followers of Zoroastrianism are known as Parsis. Zoroaster's life dates have been traditionally given as 628-551 BC, but many scholars argue for earlier dates. Linguistic evidence suggests that he was born in northeastern Iran, but the prophet's message was to spread throughout the Persian Empire. The persian Kings adopted it as the faith and Zoroastrianism became the religion of the Achaemenid empire and flourished under its successors, the Parthian and Sassanian empires. The Zoroastrianism began to decline with the rise of the Muslim in 7th century. The persuation resulted in the migration of the majority of Zoroastrians to India, and therefore they are now known as Parsis.

The language of the earliest Zoroastrian writings is close to that of the Indian Vedas, and much of the mythology is recognizably the same. Two groups of gods were worshiped, the ahuras and the daevas. The worship of the ahuras (lords) may have reflected the practice of the pastoral upper classes, and tradition holds that Zoroaster was born into a family that worshiped only the ahuras. The message of the prophet, however, was that Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, was the sole creator and lord of the world and that the worship of the daevas was the worship of evil.

Zoroastrianism stretched all the way from India to the mediterranean, but today it is founded only around Shiraz in Iran, Karachi in Pakistan and Mumbai in India. Zoroastrianism was one of the first religions to postulate that there is an omnipotent and invisible God. They believe in Ahura Mazda, who is symbolized by fire. Humanity ensures victory over evil by following the principles of humata (good thoughts), hukta (good words) and huvarshta (good deeds). Parsis worship in the Fire temples and wear a sadra (sacred shirt) and a kasti (sacred thread).

The sacred literature of Zoroastrianism is found in the Avesta, which was compiled sometime during the Sassanian period (224-640). Only a portion of the Avesta remains, but the language of its earliest sections is extremely ancient, closely related to that of the Indian Vedas. These sections, the Gathas, are thought to be by Zoroaster himself. They are hymns and form the primary part of the Yasna, the central rite of the religion. It also contains the Yashts, hymns to a number of the ahuras, and later in date than the Gathas. Finally comes the Videvdat, which is concerned with purity and ritual. A large body of commentary exists in Pahlavi, dating from the 9th century, which contains quotations from earlier material no longer extant.

Since Parsis believe in purity of elements, they do not cremate or bury their dead as they think that this might pollute the fire, earth, air and water. Instead they leave the bodies in 'Towers of silence' where they are soon cleaned off by Vultures.

There are only 85,000 parsis. There number is gradually declining as they have a strict rule: that a Parsi must marry another Parsi. The offspring of mixed liasions are not regarded as true Parsis.

Hinduism

Sacred India

India is a land of religions, saints, rivers and holy places. There is probably more diversity of religion and sects in India then anywhere else on the earth. Apart from having nearly all the world’s greatest religions represented, India was the birthplace of Hinduism and Buddhism, vital supporters of Zoroastrianism (one of the world’s oldest religions) and home to Jainism (an ancient religion unique to India).

Hinduism

India’s major religion, Hinduism, is practiced by approximately 80% of the population i.e. over 670 million people. It is the largest religion in Asia. It is one of the oldest extant religions, with firm roots extending back to beyond 1000 BC.

The Indus Valley Civilization developed a religion, which bore a close relationship to Hinduism. Later, this religion influenced by the combined religious practices of the southern Dravidians and the Aryan invaders who arrived in the north India around 1500 BC. Around 1500 BC, the Vedic scriptures were introduced, providing the first loose framework for the religion.

Holy Books

Hinduism today has number of holy books, the most important being the four VEDAS (divine knowledge) which are the foundation of Hindu philosophy. The Upanishads are contained within the Vedas and delve into the metaphysical nature of the universe and soul. The Mahabharata (Great wars of the Bharatas) in an epic poem containing over 220,000 lines. It describes the battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were descendants of Lunar race. It also includes the story of Rama and the most famous Hindu epic, the Ramayana. The Bhagavad Gita is a famous episode of the Mahabharata where Krishna relates his philosophies to Arjuna. 

Facts and Fallises

Basically the religion postulates that we will go through a serious of rebirths or reincarnations that eventually lead to moksha, the spiritual salvation which frees us all from the circle of life and death. With each rebirth we move close to or further from eventual moksha; the deciding factor is our Karma, which is literally a law of cause and effect. Bad actions during our lives result in bad karma, which ends in lower reincarnation. Conversely, if our deeds and actions have been good, we will reincarnate on higher level and be a step closer to eventual freedom from rebirth.

Dharam (Natural Law)

Dharma, or the natural law, defines the total social, ethical and spiritual harmony of our lives. There are three categories of dharma, the first being the eternal harmony which involves the whole universe. The second category is the dharma that controls castes and the relations between castes. The third dharma is the moral code, which an individual should follow.

The Hindu religion has three basic practices. They are puja or worship, the crimination of the dead, and the rules and regulations of the caste system. Hinduism is not a proselytizing religion since you cannot be converted. You’re either born a Hindu or you are not; you cannot be converted. Nevertheless, Hinduism has attracted many westerners, and India’s ‘export gurus’ are many and successful.

A guru is not so much a teacher as a spiritual guide is someone who by example or simply by his or her presence indicates what path you should follow. In spiritual search one always needs a guru.

Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Devi and Devta)

Westerners find it difficult to understand Hinduism principally because of its vast pantheon of Gods – traditionally there are 330 million Hindu Gods and Demons. In fact you can look upon all these different gods simply as manifestations of Brahman or Godhead. This one omnipresent god has three main physical representations. Brahma is the creator, is considered to be impersonal and infinite, unable to be comprehended through senses. Brahma is usually represented as having four bearded head and arms, which hold a scepter, a drinking bowl, a bow and the Vedas, which emanated from his mouths. His vehicle is a white swan or goose. His knowable consort is Saraswati, goddess of science, speech and music and the inventor of Sanskrit. She carries a stringed instrument called Veena.

Vishnu is the preserver or sustainer is associated with right action. He behaves as a lawful, devout Hindu, and protects and sustains all that is good in the world. He sits on a couch made from the coil of a serpent and in his hands he holds two symbols, the conch shell and the discus. His vehicle is half – man half - eagle known as Garuda. The Garuda is benevolent and has a deep dislike of snakes. Vishnu’s consort is Lakshmi (laxmi) the goddess of wealth, prosperity, honor and love. She is often represented sitting on the lotus flower. It is said she came from sea. Vishnu has had nine reincarnation, including Rama, Krishna and Gautam Buddha and it is said that he will come again.

Shiva (Siva) the destroyer and reproducer, is the agent of death and destruction, without which growth and rebirth could not take place. He is either represented with one or five faces and four arms, which hold, fire, a drum, a horn or trident, or take the position of protection or action. He is often surrounded with arch of flame, sometimes has third eye. His matted hair is said to carry Ganges, the goddess of the river Ganges, in it. He is show with a serpent around his neck. One of Shiva’s (Siva’s) reincarnations is Nataraj, the cosmic dancer, whose dance shook the cosmos and created the world. Shiva’s (Siva’s) consort is Parvati, the beautiful daughter of Himalayas and is considered to the perfect wife. She is a form of the mother goddess Devi, whose body is India and who appears as Durga, the terrible (who holds weapons in her 10 hands, rides a tiger and slays the demons of ignorance) and Kali, the fiercest of the gods (who demands sacrifices and wears a garland of skulls).

Shiva (Siva) and Parvati have two children. Ganesh is the elephant-headed god of prosperity and wisdom and is the most popular of all gods. His vehicle is a rat. Shiva (Siva) and Parvati’s second son is Kartikkaya or Skanda, the god of war, whose vehicle is peacock.

Saints and Sadhus

A sadhu is an individual on a spiritual search. They’re easily recognized with their clothes usually saffron in color. Sadhus have often decided that their business and family life have reached a natural conclusion and that it is time to throw everything temporal aside. Sadhus renounce their material lives and wander the country, homeless, on a personal spiritual quest.

Holy Places

Of India’s many sacred cities, seven are considered particularly holy Varanasi, Haridwar, Ayodhya, Mathura, Dwarka, Kanchipuram and Ujjain are known as Tirthas – fords that enables pilgrims to cross from the world of earthy suffering to a divine plane.

Varanasi and Haridwar are important sites on the river of life, Ganges. Other cities are the birthplaces of gods- Rama was born in Ayodhya, Krishna in Mathura. Badrinath, Puri, Rameswaram and Dwarka are traditionally considered the corners (north, south, east and west) of mother India. Pilgrims attempt to make a journey, which visits all four.

Christianity

Christianity at a glance

Christianity is the most popular religion in the world with over 2 billion adherents. 42 million Britons see themselves as nominally Christian, and there are 6 million who are actively practising.

* Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament.
* Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God.
* Christians believe that God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from the consequences of its sins.
* One of the most important concepts in Christianity is that of Jesus giving his life on the Cross (the Crucifixion) and rising from the dead after the third day (the Resurrection).
* Christians believe that there is only one God, but that there are three elements to this one God :
- God the Father
- God the Son
- The Holy Spirit

* Christians worship in churches.
* Their spiritual leaders are called priests or ministers.
* The Christian holy book is the Bible, and consists of the Old and New Testaments.
* Christian holy days such as Easter and Christmas are important milestones in the Western secular calendar.

Christian history - the basics

This history of Christianity is focussed on the life, death and resurrection of one person, Jesus Christ, the son of God.

Background to the life and death of Jesus Christ

The traditional story of Jesus tells of his birth in a stable in Bethlehem in the Holy Land, to a young virgin called Mary who had become pregnant with the son of God through the action of the Holy Spirit.

The story of Jesus' birth is told in the writings of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament of the Bible.

His birth is believed by Christians to be the fulfilment of prophecies in the Jewish Old Testament which claimed that a Messiah would deliver the Jewish people from captivity.

Jesus' ministry

After the story of his birth, little is known about Jesus until he began his ministry at the age of about 30.

He then spent three years teaching, healing and working miracles.

He taught in parables - everyday stories which had divine messages for those who would hear it.

He had twelve disciples whom he called to follow him and help him in his work.

Persecution and death

Jesus stated publicly that he spoke with the authority of God.

This claim angered the religious authorities in Palestine and they handed Jesus over to the Roman authorities as a revolutionary.

He was tried for heresy, condemned and put to death by means of crucifixion.

Resurrection

On the Sunday following his execution, some of his women followers discovered that the tomb into which his body had been placed was empty.

Jesus then appeared to them, alive, as the Jesus they had known prior to his death. His followers realised that God had raised Jesus from the dead.

Jesus was seen by many of his disciples and followers over the next few days before, according to the Gospel accounts, he was taken up into heaven.

Saint Paul and the early Church

It has been suggested that the work of Jesus Christ and the impact of his death and resurrection would not have made any lasting impact on the world were it not for the missionary work of Paul.

The account of Paul's conversion to Christianity is contained in the New Testament book, the Acts of the Apostles.

Before his conversion Paul had been known as Saul and had been violently opposed to the Christian faith as taught by Jesus and after his death, by his disciples.

Saul experienced a dramatic conversion, known as the Damascus Road conversion, when he was temporarily blinded.

He found himself filled with the Holy Spirit and immediately began preaching the Christian gospel.

Paul's concept of Christianity

Paul's teaching centred on understanding the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ as a central turning point in history.

He understood the resurrection to signal the end of the need to live under Jewish law.

Instead Paul taught of living in the Spirit in which the power of God was made to work through human flesh.

Some of his letters to fledgling churches throughout the Roman Empire are contained in the New Testament and outline Paul's theology.

He insisted that Gentiles had as much access to the faith as Jews and that freedom from the Law set everyone free.

It was this teaching which was essential for the development and success of the early church which would otherwise have remained nothing more than another Jewish sect.

Constantine and the Holy Roman Empire

Paul established Christian churches throughout the Roman Empire, including Europe, and beyond - even into Africa.

Persecution

However, in all cases, the church remained small and was persecuted, particularly under tyrannical Roman emperors like Nero (54-68), Domitian (81-96), under whom being a Christian was an illegal act, and Diocletian (284-305).

Many Christian believers died for their faith and became martyrs for the church (Bishop Polycarp and St Alban amongst others).

Constantine turns the tide

When a Roman soldier, Constantine, won victory over his rival in battle to become the Roman emperor, he attributed his success to the Christian God and immediately proclaimed his conversion to Christianity.

Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Constantine then needed to establish exactly what the Christian faith was and called the First Council of Nicea in 325 AD which formulated and codified the faith.

Formulating the faith

Over the next few centuries, there were debates and controversies about the precise interpretation of the faith, as ideas were formulated and discussed.

The Council of Chalcedon held in 451 was the last council held whilst the Roman Empire was intact. It gave rise to the Nicene Creed which Christians still say today to affirm their belief in God, Christ and his church.

When Rome fell in 476, it meant that Western and Eastern Christians were no longer under the same political rule and differences in belief and practice arose between them.

The Great Schism

The differences between Eastern and Western Christianity culminated in what has been called the Great Schism, in 1054, when the patriarchs of the Eastern and Western division (of Constantinople and Rome respectively) were unable to resolve their differences.

The split led to the Orthodox church and the Roman Catholic church.

The Orthodox church does not recognise the authority of the Roman papacy and claims a Christian heritage in direct descent from the Christian church of Christ's believers.

Sikhism

Sikhism was started in Punjab by Guru Nanak in the late 15th century. Followers of this religion are known as the Sikhs. There are about ten million Sikhs in India of whom over 85% live in Punjab. The majority of the remainder live in Haryana and Delhi. They are also scattered in other parts of India. Some Sikhs have also settled in Malaysia, Singapore, east Africa, England, the United States of America and Canada. The word Sikh means disciple. They are the disciples of their ten Gurus- the chain beginning with Guru Nanak and ending with Guru Gobind Singh.

Guru Nanak was born in 1469 in the village of Rai Bhoi di Talwandi. His father was a revenue collector. Nanak received a traditional Hindu education. From his early age only he came into the association of holy men. For some time he worked as the accountant of the Afghan Chieftain at Sultanpur. There he met a Muslim family servant, Mardana. Nanak began to compose hymns. Mardana started composing music for them and the two soon made a religious hymn-singing party. From the offering made, they organised a canteen where Muslims and Hindus could eat together. At Sultanpur, Nanak had first vision of God. He was ordered to preach mankind. While bathing in a river one day a miracle happened and Nanak disappeared. When he re-appeared on the third day he had become the 'enlightened one'. He began preaching religious harmony between the Hindus and Muslims.

Guru Nanak visited many parts of India and preached people. He spent the last years of his life in Kartarpur where he raised the first Sikh temple. Before he died in 1539, he nominated one of his disciples, Angad , as his successor.

Guru Angad (Guru 1539-52) was followed by Guru Amar Das (Guru 1552-74); Guru Ram Das (Guru 1574-81); Guru Arjun (Guru 1581-1606); Guru Hargobind (Guru 1606-44); Guru Har Rai (Guru 1644-61); Guru Harkrishan (Guru 1661-64); Guru Tegh Bahadur (Guru 1664-75) and Guru Gobind Singh (Guru 1675-1708).

The execution of two Gurus, Arjun Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur, by Mughals compelled the Sikhs to take to arms. On April 13, 1699 Guru Gobind Singh initiated five Sikhs into a new fraternity called Khalsa (Pure). He gave them a common surname, 'Singh' (lion). Kaur (Lioness) is the corresponding name given to all Sikh women. The number five has always had mystic significant in the Punjab- land of five rivers. The first Khalsa were the Panj Payares- the five loved ones.

Khalsa emblems

Khalsa's have five emblems, all beginning with letter 'K'. They are 'Kesa'(hair), 'Kangha'(Comb), 'Kacch' (Drawers), 'Kirpan' (Sabre) and 'Kara' (bracelet of steel) commonly worn on the right arm.

The only object of worship for Sikhs is the Adi Granth. Worshippers make their offerings of money and flowers and receive 'Karah Parsad'. The biggest festivals of Sikhs is Baisakhi which is also the birthday of the Khalsa-Panth itself.

Sikh Temples

Sikhism doesn't recognise caste or classes, so everyone becomes involved in ceremonies. Communal meals are a feature of temple activities. Often accommodation and food (langar) is offered free of charges.

Design and Function

Sikh temple is called a gurudwara. Outside there is a flagpole, called a nishan sahib, flying a a triangular flag with the Sikh insignia. There is no special requirement for the design of the building. Sikhs worship only one god and are opposed to idol worship. You'll probably see pictures of the Gurus (the spiritual leaders who founded Sikhism), especially the first, fifth and 10th (last) Gurus. The wisdom of the Gurus is contained in the Guru Granth Sahib, a book written by Arjun, the fifth Guru, in the early 17th century. It has become an object of veneration in itself and is regarded as the 'living' Guru.

Etiquette for visitors

Sikhism is an egalitarian religion and everyone is welcome to enter the temple. However, you must remove your shoes and you are supposed to cover your head.

Example of Sikh Temples

The Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab, is the paragon of Sikh Temples. The holiest shrine of Sikhism, also known as the Hari Mandir, blends Hindu and Muslim styles of architecture.

Golden Temple - Amritsar
The holiest shrine of the Sikh religion is also known as Hari Mandir Sahib, is located in the old part of Amritsar. The temple itself is surrounded by the pool, which gave the town its name, and is reached by a causeway. Open to all, it's a beautiful place, especially early in the morning.

Hari Mandir
Hari Mandir standing in the middle of the sacred pool, the Golden Temple is a two storey marble structure reached by a causeway known as the Guru's Bridge. The lower parts of the marble walls are decorated with inlaid flower and animal motifs in the pietra dura style of Taj Mahal. Once inside the temple, pilgrims offer sweet doughy prasaad to the attendants, who take half to distribute to everyone as they leave the temple.

The architecture of the Golden Temple is a blend of Hindu and Muslim styles. The golden dome (said to be glided with 100kg of pure gold) is supposed to represent an inverted lotus flower. It is inverted, turning back to the earth, to symbolise the sikh's concern with the problems of this world.

Granth Sahib
Four priests at key positions around the temple keeps up a continuous reading in Punjabi from the Sikhs' holy book. The reading is broadcasted by loudspeaker. The original copy of the Granth Sahib is kept under a pink shroud in the Golden Temple during the day and at around 10pm each evening is ceremoniously returned to the Akal Takhat (Sikh Parliament) building. The morning processional ceremony takes place at 4:00am in summer, 5am in winter.

Sikh Museum
The central Sikh Museum is upstairs in the clock tower and comprises a gallery of painting telling the story of the Sikhs and their martyrs.

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